In psychology, social comparison theory refers to the concept that people have an inherent drive measure their self-worth and abilities by comparing themselves to those around them. Social comparison theory was founded by Leon Festinger, a social psychologist, in 1954. Festinger was the first to introduce the theory, and his early work on social influence laid the groundwork for understanding how people evaluate themselves through comparison. Early research used Likert scales and open-ended questions to measure how individuals engage in social comparison and their emotional responses (EBSCO, n.d.).
Social comparison theory asserts that individuals are motivated to evaluate themselves with accuracy. Ideas, values, and attitudes are measured by comparing ourselves to others to obtain an accurate sense of self. The theory explains that individuals seek to reduce uncertainty about themselves by garnering information about others and evaluating their own opinions and abilities through this social comparison process.
How Social Comparison Works
The theory centers on several main principles. Festinger believed that individuals have an inner drive and motivation to evaluate themselves objectively and will measure themselves against others if there is no objective measurement readily available. Despite this, individuals will cease comparison with others if the assessment is accompanied by resentment and undesirable consequences. There are individual differences in how people interpret social comparisons, with personality traits and mindsets (such as fixed vs. growth) influencing their responses and self-evaluation.
Another principle discusses how individuals will not evaluate themselves against someone that they perceive to be wholly different and instead, will find someone perceived as similar to ensure accurate self-evaluation. There is often elevated pressure to conform to thoughts and values inherent to a group when that comparison group is revered. An individual may try to influence a comparison group to align with their own principles, but will ultimately move towards conformity if persuasive efforts are unsuccessful. Within a social group, membership and differences among other members can affect the social comparison process, impacting human relations, group cohesion, and conformity.
The Evolution of Social Comparison Theory
Since the 1950’s, the theory has evolved, and research has begun to center not only on social comparison as a way for individuals to define themselves, but as a mechanism for improvement and enhancement. In 1981, Thomas Wills introduced the concept of downward social comparison, explaining how comparing oneself to those worse off can enhance self-esteem, though it may also lead to complacency or a distorted sense of superiority (Wills, 1981).
Abraham Tesser later developed the self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model in the late 1980s, extending the theory to explain how individuals manage self-esteem in close relationships (Beach & Tesser, 2000). Later research has expanded our understanding of how social context and group dynamics influence social comparison, even when objective standards are available. Individuals are motivated to engage in social comparison to validate themselves and for positive self-evaluation.
Objective Evaluation
Objective evaluation is at the heart of social comparison theory, providing a framework for how people assess their own abilities and opinions in relation to others. Psychologist Leon Festinger emphasized that when objective metrics are unavailable, people tend to rely on social comparison processes to evaluate themselves. This natural part of human behavior helps individuals understand their own strengths and weaknesses, especially in areas where clear standards are lacking.
The self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model, developed by Abraham Tesser, offers further insight into how people manage their self-image when faced with potentially threatening comparisons. According to the SEM model, individuals may distance themselves from others who outperform them in areas important to their self-worth, or they may shift their focus to domains where they feel more competent. This process helps maintain a positive self-image and avoid the negative effects that can arise from constant exposure to others’ achievements.
Social Comparison as a Tool for Self-Improvement
The positive aspects of social comparison include self-enhancement, increased motivation, and constructive benchmarks for goal-setting. There is often a unidirectional drive upward, where people compare themselves to those slightly better off to motivate growth, though upward comparisons can also trigger feelings of envy or self-doubt.
Individuals have a tendency to make upwards and downwards comparisons, meaning comparisons will be made with those perceived to be in better and worse circumstances. Downward social comparison can boost self-esteem and offer reassurance, but may also foster a distorted sense of superiority or complacency. Upward social comparisons can be utilized as a motivating factor or as inspiration to improve, making people feel motivated. However, individuals may either minimize or refrain from making comparisons if they are threatened or believe that their abilities are subpar. Moreover, at times, people will alter or disregard information in attempts to preserve their self-esteem or to see themselves in a more positive light.
Impact on Daily Life
Social comparison theory impacts us on a daily basis. People begin comparing themselves to others from an early age, and this process continues throughout life. As toddlers and preschoolers explore their environment, they are watchful of their peers and constantly assess what they are doing and playing with. For example, a high school student might compare their performance to peers during sports tryouts, which can motivate self-improvement and confidence.
School-aged children and teenagers consistently compare themselves to their classmates and peer group in attempts to evaluate their own intelligence, appearance, and popularity. Adults measure themselves against others more in terms of prosperity, success, finance, and occupation. The small pond analogy, or Frog Pond Effect, illustrates how being a “big frog in a small pond” can lead to higher self-esteem compared to being in a larger, more competitive environment. Thus, individuals of all ages utilize social comparisons in order to better understand themselves, their self-worth, and how they fit into the larger world (McFarland & Buehler, 1995). In real life, these comparisons influence self-esteem, relationships, and mental health.
Social Comparison via Social Media
In this day and age, social media has become a necessity, a way of life, as opposed to a fun way to pass idle time. People use it for career networking, connecting with old friends, and learning about the experiences of people with different perspectives in other parts of the world. In addition, more and more individuals are using social media to share aspects of their lives, whether it be stories, tidbits, events, or pictures.
You can get a pretty accurate snapshot of a person’s life just by scrolling through their Instagram page. While social media can be beneficial for sharing information, especially with loved ones in different geographical regions, it also serves as a grand stage for social comparison. Social media amplifies social comparison by presenting curated highlights of others’ lives, which can distort self-perception and lead to feelings of inadequacy. Findings suggest that frequent social comparison can create a cycle of negative self-talk, leading to anxiety, depression, and chronic stress. Social comparison can also harm relationships by breeding feelings of jealousy or resentment when individuals compare themselves to a friend’s success.
Social media provides a grand stage as it pertains to social comparison. Individuals have more access than ever before and a plethora of opportunities to make social comparisons right from the privacy of their own home. It is important to note that social comparison via social media should be used with some level of precaution, as we need to be mindful of the true objective of social comparison theory: to understand, evaluate, and improve ourselves.
When social comparison is done for the wrong reasons, we run the risk of self-deprecation, especially if we are only looking at upwards comparisons and begin to feel inadequate. Instead of setting the proverbial bar too high and setting ourselves up for failure, we need to use social comparison theory as a springboard for motivation and improvement. Findings suggest that focusing on your own life and happiness, rather than constantly comparing yourself to others, can improve well-being (Lee, 2022). Social comparison theory is widely used in disciplines like psychology, education, marketing, and organizational science.
Final Thoughts
In today’s reality, in which our social circles are extended through digital tools, people tend to compare themselves to the highlight reels of others’ lives, making it easy to fall into the trap of setting unrealistic standards. This can distort self-perception and lead to negative effects on mental health. Recognizing the importance of objective evaluation in social comparison theory can help individuals maintain a balanced perspective, using comparisons as a tool for self-understanding and growth rather than a source of self-doubt.
Ultimately, objective evaluation is a critical component of social comparison theory. By thoughtfully comparing oneself to others, individuals can gain valuable insights into their own abilities and opinions, while also being mindful of the potential pitfalls. Striving for a realistic and balanced approach to social comparison can help boost self-esteem, support mental health, and foster a more positive self-image in the face of constant comparison.
Sources
- Beach, S. R. H., & Tesser, A. (2000). Self-evaluation maintenance and evolution. In J. Suls & L. Wheeler (Eds.), Handbook of social comparison: Theory and research (pp. 123–140). Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4237-7_7
- Chen Y. H. (2025). A comparative study of state self-esteem responses to social media feedback loops in adolescents and adults. Frontiers in psychology, 16, 1625771. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1625771
- EBSCO. (n.d.). Social comparison theory. Research Starters. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/psychology/social-comparison-theory
- Lee J. K. (2022). The effects of social comparison orientation on psychological well-being in social networking sites: Serial mediation of perceived social support and self-esteem. Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 41(9), 6247–6259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01114-3
- McFarland, C., & Buehler, R. (1995). Collective self-esteem as a moderator of the frog-pond effect in reactions to performance feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(6), 1055–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.6.1055
- Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90(2), 245–271. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.90.2.245
Tracy is a Licensed Professional Counselor and is a clinical supervisor for a Community YMCA. Tracy has over 12 years of experience working in many settings including partial care hospitalization and intensive outpatient programs, community agencies, group practice, and school-based programs. Tracy works with clients of all ages, but especially enjoys working with the adolescents.