Functional fixedness refers to a cognitive bias that limits creative thinking and problem-solving by restricting a person’s ability to recognize alternative uses for objects. It’s a systematic error that can affect a person’s judgment or their ability to make decisions. When you notice that someone is unable to see any other use for a specific item other than the use that it was intended to have, you may be observing this bias in action.
Introduction to Cognitive Bias
Cognitive bias refers to the systematic ways in which our thinking can deviate from rational judgment, often leading us to make illogical decisions or draw inaccurate conclusions. These biases shape our “subjective reality,” influencing how we interpret and respond to the world around us. Functional fixedness is a prime example of a cognitive bias that limits our ability to approach problem solving and creative thinking with an open mind.
When we fall into the trap of functional fixedness, we see objects only in terms of their most common or intended use, overlooking multiple ways they could be used to find solutions. This cognitive bias that limits our thinking can prevent us from discovering new and innovative ways to solve problems, simply because we’re stuck on what an object is “supposed” to do.
Understanding Mental Sets
Mental sets are habitual ways of approaching problems, often based on previous experiences or learned strategies. While these mental sets can help us solve familiar problems quickly, they can also contribute to functional fixedness by making us rely on conventional methods.
A classic example of functional fixedness caused by mental sets is the candle problem: given a candle, thumbtacks, and a box of matches, one must figure out how to attach the candle to a wall. Most people try to tack the candle directly to the wall, not realizing the candle is too thick for the thumbtacks. The real solution is to use the empty box as a candle holder, tack the box to the wall, and place the candle inside. This example of functional fixedness shows how our thinking can get stuck on the usual functions of objects, and how overcoming functional fixedness requires us to break free from our mental sets and see objects in new ways.
Common Examples
One classic example is when someone does not use a book as a fan because a book is meant to be read. It’s not that they have a particular objection to using a book as a fan; it’s just that they simply cannot see it as a possible option. This illustrates how people often overlook other uses for familiar objects due to functional fixedness.
Another example might be if you need to punch a hole into a cardboard box, so you look all over your home for an object that might help you complete that task. While you may see a pen, an instrument that can easily be used for punching holes, right in front of you, you never even consider it. Due to functional fixedness, you view a pen as an object that is only meant for writing, and may also overlook different objects, such as scissors or keys, that could serve the same purpose. Considering other objects can help overcome this bias and lead to more creative solutions.
Pictorial examples, such as showing images of objects being used in their typical ways, can further reinforce functional fixedness and make it harder for people to see alternative uses. Being aware of this effect and actively seeking other uses for objects can help overcome these cognitive barriers.
Origins of Functional Fixedness as a Cognitive Bias
This term was first studied by the German therapist Karl Duncker. He created the Candle Problem, which is meant to test a person’s functional fixedness.
In experiments with people using the Candle Problem, subjects have tried many different solutions, but the only one that worked was to attach the box to the wall and set the candle on top of it. Most people couldn’t arrive at this solution. However, in another experiment in which the box was empty, people were able to arrive at this solution more quickly and in larger numbers. Now, the box no longer had a set function in the people’s mind. Therefore, changing the smallest detail can reduce functional fixedness (Duncker & Lees, 1945).
These experiments also highlight how negative transfer can occur when prior knowledge leads to incorrect assumptions or hinders adaptation to new tasks. Conversely, positive transfer happens when previous experience helps participants solve new problems more effectively. Through these tasks, participants can gain new knowledge about problem-solving and learn strategies to overcome functional fixedness.
One study suggests that reframing the design problem or presenting analogies can help participants overcome cognitive barriers. Researchers found that when participants are exposed to cross-domain inspiration, they are more likely to find creative solutions and avoid functional fixedness (Moreno et al., 2015).
Functional fixedness is not limited to mundane tasks like the one in the Candle Problem; it can also be a significant challenge in a design problem, such as creating a spill-proof cup or a new type of power strip, where overcoming fixed mental sets is crucial for innovation.
The Challenges of Functional Fixedness
Functional fixedness can result in challenges in both problem-solving and creativity. The negative effects of functional fixedness include limiting a person’s ability to generate new ideas and adapt to changing situations, ultimately stifling innovation. This bias can limit one’s thinking, as individuals may only see objects or solutions in their traditional roles, preventing them from considering other possibilities. In real life, this means a person might struggle to find creative solutions to everyday problems, such as using a household item for an unconventional purpose in an emergency.
Most creative works and other inventions involve someone using something that’s already there in a new way. Engineers at technology companies are excellent at thinking outside of the box, often seeking innovative solutions to overcome the constraints of functional fixedness. For example, crowdsourcing ideas can help generate new solutions that a single person might not consider. Productive thinking, which involves rethinking assumptions and approaching problems creatively, is essential for breaking free from the repetitive, unproductive thinking caused by functional fixedness. People can approach problems differently by challenging their initial assumptions and being open to alternative perspectives. Consider how we write on computers, rather than on paper, and can answer phone calls through smartwatches. These are examples of innovations that broke free of the conventional ways we viewed certain objects.
When someone is having a hard time solving a problem due to functional fixedness, they will keep coming back to it with the same solution because that’s the one that their mind tells them is supposed to work. It may cause them to never be able to solve it on their own.
Cognitive Biases in Problem Solving
Many cognitive biases can affect our problem-solving abilities, but functional fixedness is one of the most common. It limits our thinking, making it difficult to see alternative uses for objects beyond their common function. For example, if you see a coin only as money, you might not realize it could also be used to tighten a loose screw. This is a clear example of functional fixedness in action; our minds become “fixed” on the object’s intended use, making it hard to consider other solutions. Overcoming functional fixedness means training ourselves to look for alternative uses and to question whether the most obvious solution is the only one. By doing so, we can expand our problem-solving skills and discover creative solutions that might otherwise go unnoticed.
Unexpected Places
Functional fixedness isn’t just a human phenomenon; it can be found in unexpected places, even among animals. A recent 2024 study with chimpanzees revealed that prior knowledge can limit an animal’s ability to solve new problems. In the study, chimpanzees were trained to use a straw to drink juice. Later, when faced with the task of using the same straw to push a food pellet out of a blocked tube, most chimpanzees failed. Their previous knowledge of the straw as a drinking tool prevented them from seeing it as a tool for a different task. This demonstrates how functional fixedness, shaped by prior knowledge, can interfere with the ability to use objects in new ways, even in the animal kingdom (Ebel et al., 2024).
Overcoming Functional Fixedness
You may find that you regularly exhibit functional fixedness, and it’s limiting your ability to solve problems. There’s no specific solution that will work for everyone. One effective approach is to think about the multiple purposes an object might serve, beyond its intended function. The best option is to try brain exercises that help you to see beyond an object’s intended function. You may have to break down the object into all the different parts that make it, so that you can see it from a different light.
Considering how different tools can be used in various ways can help you overcome functional fixedness. Also, you can try holding up an object to a friend with an occupation or interests that are different than yours. Ask them all the possible ways in which they might use that object. Repeating this exercise can help you learn to see things more open-mindedly and ultimately improve your problem-solving skills.
Mental Flexibility
Mental flexibility is the key to overcoming functional fixedness and finding creative solutions to problems. It’s the ability to shift between different mental sets, adapt to new information, and see objects from multiple perspectives. Developing mental flexibility can involve breaking down a problem into its basic parts, seeking inspiration from other fields, or using design thinking techniques. For example, someone with long hair might use a pencil or pen as a substitute for a hair tie, an alternative use that might not occur to someone without that experience. This shows how different backgrounds and experiences can help us see new possibilities for the same objects. By practicing mental flexibility, we can overcome functional fixedness and unlock a full range of creative solutions in our everyday lives.
Final Thoughts
While functional fixedness may present itself as a problem, it has its place. It helps us to associate certain objects with certain tasks and create shortcuts. If you need to cut something, you already know that’s the function of a knife. You don’t have to try out every single object in your kitchen every time to see which one can do the task. So, you do need some level of functional fixedness to avoid frustration and confusion in life.
Functional fixedness is not always a harmful system error. In many instances, it’s beneficial. However, it can be problematic in situations where complex problem-solving and creative skills are required. Anytime you need to think outside of the box, it’s important to be conscious of the possibility that you may experience functional fixedness and try to avoid it, or you’ll be stuck going in circles.
References
- Da Silva, S., Gupta, R., & Monzani, D. (2023). Editorial: Highlights in psychology: cognitive bias. Frontiers in psychology, 14, 1242809. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1242809
- Duncker, K. (1945). On problem-solving. Psychological Monographs, 58(5), i–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0093599
- Ebel, S. J., Völter, C. J., Sánchez-Amaro, A., Helming, K. A., Herrmann, E., & Call, J. (2024). Functional fixedness in chimpanzees. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 12155. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-62685-w
- King, D. B., Cox, M., & Wertheimer, M. (2003). Karl Duncker: Productive problems with beautiful solutions. Gestalt Theory, 25(1-2), 95–110.
- Moreno, D. P., Yang, M. C., Hernández, A. A., Linsey, J. S., & Wood, K. L. (2015). A step beyond to overcome design fixation: A design-by-analogy approach. In J. Gero & S. Hanna (Eds.), Design computing and cognition ’14 (pp. 647–666). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14956-1_34
- Munoz-Rubke, F., Olson, D., Will, R., & James, K. H. (2018b). Functional fixedness in tool use: Learning modality, limitations and individual differences. Acta Psychologica, 190, 11–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.06.006
- Zhang, Z., Tan, T., Huang, F., Xie, X., Han, L., & Luo, J. (2025). The induction of a specific mental set for problem solving is accompanied by increased neural representational similarities. Cerebral cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991), 35(6), bhaf128. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhaf128
Theresa Smith is a relationship expert with over 20 years of experience. She has worked in different areas including clinical work, and more recently a writer. She has a passion for happy relationships and feels that it’s an attainable goal for everyone.
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